Biology is a complex science that shows everything about life: life, functions and the behavior of living organisms, their mutuality in natural environments from the medium of living by those other living organisms.

concept the science it is defined as "the sphere of human activity for the acquisition, systematization of objective knowledge about reality." Vіdpovіdno up to tsgogo denominated by the object of science - biology life in all її manifestations and forms, as well as in different peers .

History of formation and development of biology

The history of biology is available a lot. Even before the first people, it was necessary for the mother to know more about the growths and creatures. Within the framework of the global development of the natural sciences, knowledge was accumulated, which would lie down to the core of biological science. In the practice of philosophers of antiquity, one can find information about the biological character. Aristotle having deeply thought over the theory of organic development, being a knower of natural and scientific disciplines, we are in front of zoology, botany and related problems of elementary forms of living things and processes of life. Hippocrates proponing the first theory, as an explanation of infectious disease. The global development of science has changed over the hours of antiquity, as we know from history, like the “cold” period of the Middle Ages, which is characterized by a dramatic decline in the natural sciences and the biology of zocrema. Zі zrozumіlih reasons at this stage, people were only known to be representatives of the growing world and the creaturely world. The majestic development of biology and victoria, fruits, zokrema, and medicine gave vineyards in the 17th century. microscope by a Dutchman O. Levenguk. Humanity has penetrated into the microcosm, expanding the manifestation of life. It needs to be said that the very fact of the origin of microorganism caused a change by looking at the theory of spontaneous life. K. Linneym the binary nomenclature of species has been propagated - it is also important, oskolki made it possible to systematize the accumulations of the great, and even more superb factual material. Microscopic studies served as the basis for formulating T. Schwannomі M. Schleiden position of clitin theory in the nineteenth century. At the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. Pratsami J. Lamarck, A. Weismann, J. Cuve, C. Lyell the foundations of the evolutionary development were laid, as if it became the basis of modern biology. Charles Darwinin Visible basic Pratsya "Poorzhennya Vijdiv Lyubalniv Vіdbora" (1859) Uzagalniv Emp_richniy Materiva Mother of the White Practices based on the authorities of the power of the power of the rustle of the Podozhbi, Pozbolosvіtnaya Plavane on the ship "Bigtle" Roskrivi Kompanii. Evolutionary theory can be of great importance for biology, and all natural sciences, it is noteworthy that evolutionary theory was based on thermodynamics, which describes daily processes throughout the day. Another cob of thermodynamics transfers light more and more one-many future, expansion and degradation of energy, simplification of structures. The evolutionary theory, on the other hand, will vote for the possibility of illuminating the folding from the simple, that everything is folded up. The phenomenon could not have been allowed until the 20th century. Biology has come as a strained and shattered veil of scientific knowledge, which differentiates itself into a number of daughter disciplines, which has gained the status of new important independent areas. XX Art. marked by a booming development of genetics, breeding, ecology, molecular biology and other disciplines. In this hour, knowledge of new sciences, such as cosmic biology and science, is blamed on the stick of biological disciplines with other galluses.

2 Understanding about life and living systems. equal organization of life. The power of the living.

What is life? F. Engels gave one appointment over a hundred years ago: " Life is a method of using white bodies, and this way of using a base is essentially in a constant self-improving chemical storage parts of these bodies The appointment has lost two important provisions:

life is closely tied with squirrels

The life of the mind is not controlled - the constant exchange of speeches, from which the life is attached.

The study of the powers of the objects of living nature showed that life is connected with a collapsible column of a protoplast (in place of a cell), for which the exchange of speech and energy, the realization of spadkovic acid information, and its presence in the nuclei are characteristic. Living systems from the clitin to the biosphere zahalom - systems that assimilate energy from the outer environment in such a way that they can actively resist the ruination of the formed organization, tobto. resist the process, characteristic of all bodies of inorganic nature. Behind the current manifestations, life- the purpose of establishing the basis of critical column systems, which may give rise to the power of self-regulation, to develop the development on the basis of geochemical interdependence of proteins, nucleic acids and other half-lifes in the last transformation of speech and energy of the heart. Alive systems linger lowly impassioned powers and a sign, like they revitalize their views of inanimate nature.

Molecular riven of organization – the goal of the functioning of biological macromolecules – biopolymers: nucleic acids, proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, steroids. From the same level, the most important processes of life are initiated: the exchange of speech, the transformation of energy, the transfer recession information. Tsey rіven vchayut: biochemistry, molecular genetics, molecular biology, genetics, biophysics.

Klitinny riven- the blood of clitins (clitin of bacteria, cyanobacteria, unicellular creatures and algae, unicellular fungi, clitin of bacterial organisms). Clitina is the structural unit of the living, the functional unit, the unit of development. Tsey riven vchayut cytology, cytochemistry, cytogenetics, microbiology.

Tissue riven of organization- the crown, on which the life and functioning of fabrics are twisted. Doslіdzhuєtsya tsey riven histology and histochemistry.

Organic riven of the organization- Cerebral organs of rich organisms. Anatomy, physiology, and embryology are rooted in this thread.

Organismal riven of the organization- church of single-celled, colonial and rich-celled organisms. The specificity of the organism's level is in the fact that on this level it is decoded and the implementation of genetic information, the formation of a sign, to the powerful persons of their mind. Tsej riven vchaetsya morphology (anatomy and embryology), physiology, genetics, paleontology.

Population-Species Rivne- church of marriages of individuals - populationsі vivid. Tsej rіven vvchaetsya systematics, taxonomy, ecology, biogeography, population genetics. On which equal do genetics grow ecological features of populations, elementary evolutionary factors and having invested in the gene pool (microevolution), the problem of conservation of species.

Ecosystem Riven Organization- Cerіven microecosystems, mesoecosystems, macroecosystems. On this river, types of food are grown, types of mutual organisms and populations in the ecosystem, number of populations, dynamics of the number of populations, population size, productivity of ecosystems, succession

See also biospheric rіven of organization living matter. The biosphere is a gigantic ecosystem that occupies a part of the geographic shell of the Earth. Tse mega-ecosystem. The biosphere has a circulation of speech and chemical elements, as well as the transformation of sleepy energy.

Signs of the living: 1. Exchange of speech and energy 2. Exchange of speech - a special way of interaction between living organisms and from the medium 3. Exchange of speeches due to the constant tide of speeches and energy from the posture and sight of the seriousness of the discourse products The organism is articulated by the system 4. Podrazlivіst polagaє in the transmission of information from the outer environment to the organism; on the basis of drativity, self-regulation and homeostasis develop 5. Reproduction - the creation of similar ones 6. Recession - the flow of information between generations after which the onset is safe 7. Reproduction - the appearance of new signs of reproduction; basis of evolution 8. Ontogeny - individual development, implementation of individual programs 9. Phylogeny - historical development, evolutionary development is due to recession, natural selection and struggle for evolution before evolution

3 Diversity of living organisms, their classification.

Systematics is a science that establishes interrelationships between living organisms and expands the system of their classification.

Taxonies (systematic singles):

Roslini Tvarini

kingdom kingdom

Viddil Type

class class

Zagin order

Family

The name of the species is composed of two words: The name of the Genus and the Species Epithet.

Name so living organisms by proponing Karl Linnaeus. Tse binary nomenclature.

Interest to the knowledge of the world of living nature accompanies people by stretching through the history of history. Even in the first generation, in the epoch of the Upper Paleolithic (Neogene) and Neolithic (Anthropogenic), the interest to a lively sharpening was to reflect the practical needs of people. Bazhannya Dіdatya, Chi Schіdi Unique Tychi Chi Chi Chi Chi, Napaki, Vikrotovati ї і і и и свахаха и и и и оличива в досту в в в живичива и и родовіліль в и в и и дродозділіль на кариста и и и продоровка for the preparation of clothes, znarad pratsі, life, items of clothing, satisfaction with aesthetic drinks. The first person was drunk and cautious. If you have filled your own wines with tiny little ones on the rock, we are the front, the creatures that exalt the accuracy of the image, the dynamism. It's time to take shape primary anthropomorphism(a person does not set himself against the will of nature), on the basis of which they blame different religious beliefs on the form " anemicism» - « story about the soul". Blame the statement about “alive” and “dead”: everything becomes dead (people, creatures, growths, water, stone) after that, like “the soul comes out of the body”. Nadalі anemіzm nabuvaє raznih forms. For example, for one version, the soul is an independent reality, it can be impersonal and skin-to-skin in that which is another body, which it is. However, already in the Neolithic epoch, bronze that hall was blamed for a rational, materialistic sensibility of nature, which is connected with practice. The domestication of the dog is seen, which guesses the idea of ​​domestication, which, with its own devilry, gives the ear to bestiality. The order from the people already lived in the vіvtsі, horses, cows, camels, pigs and other creatures. It's better to bring it up to the fact that agriculture is developing in parallel. So, in VI - V t BC. were cultivated wheat, barley, rye, corn, gorodni, fruits and technical crops. The centers of their adventures were described by our great spivvitchiznik N.I. Vavilovim (1921). Ch.Darwin writes: “All cultural growths and swine creatures look like wild forms as a result of an unknown piece selection in the era of early slave civilizations” (1839). In connection with this, a fundamentally important fact is stated by F. Engels selection of finished products for their production».

Biology as a science was molded for a trival hour. At її razvitku bіznі periods and podії. The study of the history of biology shows that the trivality of the periods of smooth development to the black haircut shortens, the closer we are to our hour. T.Kuhn (American historian of science) at his work "The Structure of the Scientific Revolution" (1960) inciting to see:

Period of smooth development of science

· Revolutionary transformations that are culminating in the formation of a new paradigm (bundling moments).

The node moments (aromorphoses) themselves signify PERIOD (ETAPI) development of this science. So, for natural history, for good - natural science that BIOLOGY see so PERIOD (ETAPI) DEVELOPMENT:

· Early knowledge about living nature and the first try of scientific knowledge

Antique period (bl. VI century BC - III century AD)

Middle Ages (III – XIV centuries)

Epoch of Renaissance, development of principles of natural knowledge of nature (XIV - XVII)

· Metaphysical period (XVII - XVIII). Vinniknennya that development of a statement about the change of living nature

· Formation of evolutionary ideas and theories (evolutionary period) – the first half of the 19th century. (1809, 1859)

· The period of differentiation of biological sciences on the basis of an evolutionary approach (the other half of the 19th century.

The period of integration of biology with other sciences of the natural cycle (XX century)

· Innovative direct biological studies - XXI century.

At the singing stage of acquaintance with living nature in the minds of people, the order of statements about diversity of organisms, win an idea unity all living things, including people. At once, the role and turns of diversity of living nature are being clarified. Vinikaє razuminnya imperfection of biological one-manality and diversity.

The ultimate scientific proof of the unity of all living things has become KLITIN THEORY T. Schwann and M. Schleiden (1838-39). In accordance with the clitinous principle of the life of growing and living organisms, a long period of development of the HARD LAWS, which formed the basis of morphology, physiology, reproduction and the individual development of living organisms, was conceived.

Vіdkrittam fundamental LAW the biology of goiter was explained to G. Mendel, who described the rules for the decline of a sign on the basis of transmission in generations of discrete recessive deposits (1865), G. de Vries, K. Correns and K. Chermak, yakі vіdkrily one vіd one in 1900 r. and having created the rules of decay for science, G. Mendel, G. de Vries, who discovered mutational instability (1901), the founders of population genetics G. Hardy and V. Weinberg, who formulated the law of genetic equality in populations of organisms (1908), T. Morgan (1908), T. Morgan yogo scientist 1910-1916), J. Watson, F. Crick, M. Wilkins and R. Franklin, who discovered the curved DNA helix (1953). Named laws reveal the mechanism of transmission of recessionary information from cells to cells, and through cells - from an individual to an individual and redistributed between the species in the lower generations, the principles of structural and functional organization of the genetic apparatus. Zavdyaky tsim vіdkrittyam zrozumіlou role of such biological phenomena, as a state of reproduction, change of generations, ontogeny and phylogeny.

The day of all living things is also confirmed by the accomplishment biochemical (exchange, metabolic) and biophysical mechanisms of life of clitin. The cob of tsikh is dated by the other half of the 19th century, prote naivagomishі reach molecular biology(Another half of the XX century). Zavdyaki molecular bіologіchnim doslіdzhennyam scho pridіlyayut bunt uwagi zakonomіrnostyam zberіgannya, peredachі that vikoristannya klіtinami bіologіchnoї Informácie, boules rozkritі two physical and hіmіchnі basis of such unіversalnih vlastivostey live yak spadkovіst that mіnlivіst, spetsifіchnіst bіologіchnih macromolecules structures that funktsіy, zakonomіrne vіdtvorennya in ryadі pokolіn klіtin organisms of a single type of structural and functional organization

In the context of the idea of ​​the unity of living nature, it is important that those who are alive and in the same way, in principle, save information, transmit it in a row, generations, or victorious in their life, ensure life in the process of translating energy.

The clitin theory, the achievements of genetics, biochemistry, biophysics and molecular biology, base the thesis on the unity of the organic world in today's society. Those who live on the planet one in the historical plan, turn around theory of evolution (evolutionary phenomenon). Natural foundations of the theory laid down by Ch. Darwin (1859). Further development, due to the achievements of genetics and population biology, relative embryology and morphology, paleontology, was taken away from the practice of A.M.Severtsov, N.I.Vavilov, S.S.Chetverikov, F.R.Dobzhansky, N. AT. Timofiev-Resovsky, I.I.Shmalgauzen, whose scientific activity lasted until the first half - the middle of the XX century.

Evolution at the turn of the XX - XXI century. to develop ideas about new, including "non-Darwinian" factors, mechanisms and forms of the evolutionary process.

The evolutionary idea is called STRAIGHT, WAYS, DO THAT MECHANISMS, like for a sprig of billions of fates they have led to the fact that none of them are afraid diversity of living forms, however, the world of adhering to dovkіllya and raznyatsya for equal structural and functional organization. Іnshy important pіdbag evolutionary paradigm swear by the knowledge that living forms are connected one with one spіlnіstyu pozhennia (genetic sporіdnenіnіst). The degree of sporidity is different for representatives of different groups, and one should know one's own expression in the offensiveness and completeness of the fundamental molecular, clinical and systemic mechanisms of development and life. Such recession (recession) goes down with the minuscule, as it allows you to master the vastness of that hour of new life of the mind (evolutionary and ecological plasticity), the reach of high levels of structural and functional organization.

Evolutionary ideas need to be supplemented with the improvement of the specific functions of living forms in the "economy" of nature factor of intensification and stabilization of terrestrial speech-energy circulation and flows - planetary geochemical role of living speech (V.I. Vernadsky). U zvyazku z tsim evolution of the living (or life) next to imagine species albeit as a transformation of the biosphere, under the hour of some evolution of spivtovaristvo (ecosystems, biocenoses), the historical dynamics of these is shaped by the EVOLUTION OF VIEWING.

The convergence of two evolutionary paradigms - the evolution of species (taxons) and the evolution of ecosystems and the biosphere - to make an contribution to the evolutionary idea in the framework of the thesis about the unity of the world of the living, especially vagomim.

The theory of evolution is giving respect to the intelligence of the faces between the inanimate and living nature of the planet, between the living nature and people. Vidpovidno to geochemical hypotheses the most important attributes of life:

· Self-creation based on autocatalysis (matrix synthesis)

· Vikoristannya high-molecular compounds of carbon (nucleic acids, proteins)

· Preservation in the hour of essential and creation of new biological information

· Progressive folding of structures on the basis of vypadkovy sluggishness and selection

Could blame on " prebiological» stages of the history of the planet.

The laws of evolution of biological forms cannot be superficial THE APPEARANCE OF PEOPLE– social nature, life which is not similar to the principle of clitinic organization of structures and functions, molecular-biological, genetic and environmental laws of life. THE EVOLUTIONARY THEORY SHOWS THE ROUNDS OF BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS IN THE DEVELOPMENT AND LIFE, RETHINK YOUR INTELLECTUAL WORK ACTIVITIES TILKOS, SO THAT, SCHO, "SCHO", SCHO.

Biology is like a vchennya about living organisms of vinykla, if a person nareshti has learned his own vigilance in the presence of an unruly, inanimate light. However, once upon a time, by stretching riches, biology could not be called a science with a strict meaning of the word. People tried to get rid of the disease, to feel better, to restore health, to fight against death. They killed the stench for the help of religious and magical rites, being able to propitiate the good and the evil spirit and change the break of the podia themselves.

Opening the carcasses of creatures, as if they were sacrificed or vicorous for the preparation of hives, a person could not but turn respect for the life of their internal organs, however, the method was not to kill creatures, but to transfer the future. To that, the first anatomists were led to honor the victims, as if behind the form of that familiar looking organs of the creatures they jumped the shares of the Volodar powers.

Undoubtedly, navit at that hour, if a person was constantly trying to change with the power of zaboboniv, an immeasurable amount of brown papers accumulated. The Egyptians, like masters, could embalm the bodies of the dead and the laboring mummies, little practical knowledge of human anatomy. In the Code of Hammura, compiled in the XVIII century. to the sound e. (Babylon) Their knowledge, based on the dbaily handed down from generation to generation, madly, brought melancholy to the singer.

Prote, the docks people believed that evil forces were guarded by light, and nature was resting in the power of the supernatural, the progress of science is superbly correct. To learn the most gifted ones was not occupied by learning the visible world, but by trying for help to understand the invisible and piercing world.

Significantly, even the elders changed their minds, as if they gave a similar thought and took their respect for the education of the real, accepted by the organs of the sensible world. However, in the situation of the wild witches, the stench could have been active, somehow active, to bring up the names of them before us.

And only the ancient Greeks, whose sensible, restless and drunken people, putting under the doubt all and all authorities, changed the standard of speeches. The majority of the Greeks are more important, as the very inhabitants of other lands lived in the honed invisible world of gods and gods. Wanting to create them in a natural way, the gods were richly attached to the pagan deities of other peoples, the appearance of the Greeks was revolted by such a naivety. The stench, for example, respected that ailments were called out by the arrows of the god Apollo, who could be angered and appease the sacrificial chiles.

Prote approximately 600 r. to the sound That is, on the shores of the Aegean Sea, in Ionia, a philosophical school appeared, as if it brought a new strum at the panuvali to its first manifestation. Following the order of one of the oldest philosophers of the school of Thales (the end of the 7th - the beginning of the 6th century BC). The philosophers of the Ionian school saw beyond nature, respecting that the life of the All-World flows in a strictly singing and unchanging way. The skin manifestation may have its own reason, the skin’s cause inevitably calls out a singing effect without voicing the will of the call. In addition, the philosophers admitted that the “natural law”, that the world can be ruled by the human mind, can be introduced on the basis of singing rethinks, or a guard. A similar thought signified further progress in the youngsters of the noble world.

It's a pity that we don't have enough information about these ancient philosophers, about their practices, but the names were saved, as the basis of the education itself. Moreover, rationalism is like a philosophical system (to believe in those who can understand the world with the mind, and not the heart of blood), which takes the cob from the philosophical glances of the old ionic school, without ever dying. Yogo's youth was bubbling.

Ionian school

Rationalism has changed in biology in the period, if the life of the body of the creatures began to turn in a right way, but not by the method of unraveling the divine will. Behind the orders, he became the first to rozkrivate the creatures, in order to describe the Alcmaeon (VI century BC). Vin having described the ophthalmic nerve and postulated the development of a chicken embryo. Obviously, Alcmaeon herself was considered the founder anatomy(cultivation of living organisms) and embryology(Vivchennya development of organisms). Alcmaeon should also describe a thin tube that goes into the middle ear with a gourd. It’s a pity that the sight passed unnoticed and turned to a new one in two thousand years.

Prote naivіdomіshim im'yam, pov'azanim z rationalistic cob in biology, was named after Hippocrates (about 460-377 BC). About the new one is less likely to be born and alive on the island of Kos against the Ionian coast. On the island there is a temple of Asclepius, or Esculapius, the Greek god of medicine. The temple will be similar to the current medical faculty, and yoga priests - their own doctors.

The great merit of Hippocrates before biology was those who brought the guilt of Asclepius to the honor of the world as a formality: the gods do not spit on medicine. Hippocrates realized that in a healthy body, all organs are healthy and harmonious, which cannot be said about ailments of the body. The doctor's job is to respectfully look after the changes in the body and correct them at the hour, or else take care of their bad heritage. The very activity of the doctor, which includes prayers and sacrifices, the wickedness of evil spirits or the mercy of the gods, lies in the fact that he teaches patients to take care of themselves, to improve purity, as it is possible to spend more time on fresh air and eat simple, healthy. Be-yaka supermundane so chi іnakshe destroys the jealousy of the functioning of the organism; to that it was recommended that everyone should try to keep calm.

In short, apparently, for Hippocrates, the role of the doctor was to give freedom to the healing forces of the body. At that time, qi were simply miraculous.

The traditions of Hippocrates were preserved after his death. Long time doctors respected for the honor to put his name on their robots, it is practically impossible to say at once, how it works, what happened to us, it is true to belong to Hippocrates. So, for example, the “oath of Hippocrates”, which is how graduates of medical institutes, nayimovirnishche, was folded six hundred years after death. On the other hand, you can consider that one of the most recent treatises that describe epilepsy, perhaps, was written by Hippocrates himself. Vіn є miraculous butt zastosuvannya philosophy of rationalism to biology.

Epilepsy is a disorder of the function of the brain (too little explanation), when the normal regulation of the life of the body by the brain is disrupted. With a mild form of ailments, it is wrong to cloud the feelings of the enemy, and therefore often suffer from hallucinations; with more important - z-pid control, m'yazova diyalnist will come out quickly: ailments are waking up and falling, slyly grinning and screaming; sometimes I’ll attack you in the head of your own important calistries.

An attack of epilepsy is not long, but it is heavy, almost like fear of otochyuyuchih. People who do not understand all the intricacies of the functioning of the nervous system, naїvely realize that, as if a person is collapsing not from the will of the power and with whom she herself is in trouble, she is “obsessed”, the body can be like a supernatural force.

The author of the treatise "About sacred ailments", written approximately 400 rubles. to the sound i.e., it is possible that the pen of Hippocrates himself should lie down, sharply speaking out against the widened point of view. Hippocrates, having seen if it had been an infusion of sweating forces, and having taken into account that the stench cannot be a gerel, but the cause of some kind of illness, including epilepsy. On the other hand, epilepsy, like other ailments, is caused by natural causes and, therefore, is due to rational exaltation. All modern science is rooted in this point of dawn, and it is necessary for us to name the founder of biology by name, who is the most important work of that hour, if we have practiced it, then it is better to send to Hippocrates that book “About Sacred Ailments”, written in ru. to the sound e.

Athens school

Greek biology, like the whole Hellenic culture, reached its greatest stage of development under Aristotle (384–322 BC). Aristotle, a native of Pivnichnoy Greece, used to be the guardian of Oleksandr the Great. The rozkvit of his creative activity lies in the hour that he worked at the well-known school of Athens created by him. Aristotle belongs to the most manipulative and most ancient Greek philosophers. Do something to suffocate the ears of knowledge at that hour - from physics to literature and zazhadav from politics to biology. The greatest popularity was gained by yoga practices from physics, which are considered the main rank of life and inanimate nature and processes, which are found in it, prote, as if it were in the past, may be all the stench turned out to be wrong.

In order of physics, philosophy and other sciences, Aristotle, having already choked on biology, zokrema, dedicating a lot of time to the cultivation of marine organisms, - like a sverdzhuyut, it was enough to take one of the most beloved ones. Practices of Aristotle in biology are seen to be the worst in yoga, but the stink of the stench may have been forgotten for a year.

Aristotle respectfully looked at the old look and behavior of the living beings (tobto natural history). Vіn narahuvav nearly five hundred different "sights" of creatures and pointing at their vіdmіnnostі. By itself, the list, perhaps, and without meriting special respect, but Aristotle did not chime in on it. Vіn, for example, having shown that different creatures can be grouped, and then carry out the gradation next more carefully. So, terrestrial creatures can be easily divided into chotyri-footed (animals), flying birds (birds), and those that are left alone can be united into one group under the common name of worms. Sea dwellers can be put into one group under the name ribi. However, for help to instill such a rude classification, the old Greek teachings do not know how to determine the degree to which the creature belongs.

For example, respectfully guarding the dolphins, Aristotle having established that, wanting to remain for a good look and place of living and to represent fish-like creatures, for other important signs, the stench is far away from the fish. So, the dolphins are light, and the stench is breathing. On the vіdmіnu vіd ribi, dolphin can be drowned, like a long time under the water. In addition, dolphins are warm-blooded creatures, not cold-blooded. And, what is more important, the stench of living children, as if in the womb of their mother, are eating through the placenta. For everyone, dolphins are similar to being covered with warm-blooded dry land creatures. In the opinion of Aristotle, there were plenty of signs of these similar ones, so that whales (whales, dolphins and porpoises) were combined with land creatures, and not with sea fishes, - they were two thousand years ahead of their time, more than all antique middle days continued to pair whale-like fish with fish. It is to the merit of Aristotle that the next step was taken into account: the wines were divided into two groups - ribs with brushes and ribs with cartilage, like a shark, with a skeleton.

Klasifіkuyuchi creatures, Aristotle mav objects in the world of their progressive development. In the light of a sharp glance, it did not shove that nature, by the way, to the top of the light-budding - people - go through different stages of evolution. Vidpovіdno to his tower of the world, Aristotle divided it into chotiri of the kingdom: below - the inanimate world of the earth, lead that wind; a little more - a growing world, more and more - a world of creatures, Nareshti, on the top itself - a world of people. The inanimate world exists, the world of growth does not only exist, but it multiplies; the world of creatures is, it is multiplying, it is collapsing, but the human being is not only alive, it is multiplying, it is collapsing, but it is thinking.

At its heart, the growing light is divided into simple and folding grows; world of creatures - on creatures with red blood and bloodless. Until the rest, Aristotle recognized (in the order of Daedalus greater folding) sponges, mollusks, lumps, crustaceans and octopuses. Creatures with red blood, I think, in my opinion, a higher organization, include ribs, reptiles, birds and animals.

Aristotle having shown that at these meetings of life there are not many cool people and it is impossible to bring that smaller looking group up to the singing group. So, the simplest growths, it would seem, would only show the signs of life, and the simplest creatures (for example, sponges) may not breathe in the growths and so on.

True, in Aristotle there are no riddles about those that the forms of life are step by step transformed into others and that it is more important to resemble the nature that stands on the lower level of development. As you can see, the concept itself is a good one in modern evolutionary theory, and Aristotle was by no means an evolutionist. However, the “go out of life” created by him inevitably inspired them to such a head of thought, which they could bring before the revelation about evolution.

We can consider Aristotle as the founder zoology(Sciences about creatures); naskіlki allow us to judge the practice of the vchenogo, as it has come to our time, in the singing world, not having grown up with roslins. However, after the death of Aristotle, the Athenian school of philosophers was created by him, having scorched his teacher Theophrastus (372-287 pp. Theophrastus laid the foundations botany(sciences about roslini); in yoga creations, close to five hundred species of roslin are reportedly described.

Alexandria

After the permissive march of Alexander the Great, that he conquered the Persian Empire, the Hellenic culture penetrated to the edges of the Mediterranean basin. Egypt fell under the rule of Ptolemy (on the basis of one of the commanders of Oleksandr), and the Greeks moved to the newly created capital of Oleksandriya. A museum was created there, which, by common law, can be considered a prototype of the modern university. Oleksandriyski vcheni gained wide popularity with their achievements in mathematics, astronomy, geography and physics. Even though biology did not belong to the popular sciences in Oleksandriya, however, two famous names can be known in it: tse Herophilus (the resolution of this activity dates back to 300 BC) that yogo scholar Erazistrat (250 BC n.

In the era of Christianity of Herophilus and Erasistrat, they called to the one who, watching the anatomy of a human being, stench publicly robbed corpses. Not turned off, what a guess. Herophilus was the first of those who learned that hour, having restored his respect to the head brain, as to the organ of the mind. True, Alcmaeon and Hippocrates were pointed out before the new one, even as Aristotle introduced the brain to a lesser role as an organ designated for blood cooling. Herophilus having set up a difference between sensitive nerves (catch the sight) and ruhovymi (that call out m'yazovі fastness), and wind between arteries and veins, remembering that the first ones pulsate, but stop. You should have a description of the liver and spleen, the eyes of the eyes and the first part of the small intestine (which now has taken away the name of the twelve-fingered intestine), as well as the state of the organs of the woman and the front of the stomach of the human.

In his hand, Erazistrat revealed that the cephalic brain of the divisions on the larger pivculum and the smaller cerebellum beyond the size. Vіn gave a description of brain zvivins and aroused respect, that the stench is more pronounced in people, lower in creatures. Tse watchfulness allowed you to bind a lot of zvivin brain with rozumovym zdіbnosti.

There is only a little bit of confusion that after such a promising cob of the Oleksandrinsky school in biology has begun. In fact, Greek science began to fall into oblivion approximately after 200 r. BC e. Vaughn prospered through the intervening centuries, but in the thriving international wars, the Greeks recklessly squandered their energy and kindness. The stench fell under the power of the back of the Macedonian Empire, that of Rome. Step by step, the Greek priests took the middle of their respect for the development of rhetoric, ethics, philosophy;

In addition, for the development of biology, an important fact that life - living nature - for the sake of the inanimate world was considered sacred, and therefore inappropriate for rationalistic education. The anatomy of the human body was absolutely unacceptable. That nevdovzі їm vzagalі pripinalis occupied - on the back through moral condemnation, and then under the fear of violating the laws. A number of vipadkivs have little religious character. So, the Egyptians respected that, in view of the integrity of the body, it was possible to deposit the dead man's potion. Among the Jews, and later among the Christians, Roztin got into blues playing, more, like the stench was hardening, the human body was created in the image and likeness of God and sacred to that.

The era of the Roman Volodymyr

The panuvannya of the Romans in the Mediterranean was long overdue for the development of biology. It was enough for the people of that hour to be illumined, to gather together the memory of the past, to save them and popularize among the svvgromadyans. So, Aulus Cornelius Celsus (I century BC - I century AD) called the decline of the Greeks in his own course of survey lectures. Razdіl tsgogo course z meditsina surviving suchasnіv. Tim himself Celsus, as a doctor, became famous more richly, having not deserved more than that.

The expansion of the territory of the Roman Empire in the wake of successful conquests allowed them to collect collections of roslin and posterity for the creaturely world in quiet places, which were inaccessible to ancient Greeks. So, the Greek physician Dioscorides (1st century AD), who served in the Roman army, having overthrown Theophrastus: he should have a description of six hundred species of roslin. I especially respect Dioscorides, having taken on the role of power in Russia, so we can honor Yogo as the founder pharmacology(Vchennya about faces).

One of the most important Roman monuments of nature is Gaius Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD). From your famous encyclopedia (which has 37 volumes) you can buy all the ancient sciences from natural history, as if you were far away. Next, prote, scho Pliny yakiy zavzhdi was critically posed to victorious dzherel. Although I chose significant factual material (having posited it mainly in Aristotle), in yoga works there was a lot of bait and zaboboniv. Ponad those, Pliny entered the philosophy of rationalism. Stuck with different types of roslin and creatures, vin tsikavivsya, as the role of skin from them is played in the life of a person. On yoga thought, everything in nature is for the sake of a person: either I give it to my life, or it’s a life-threatening, or it stimulates physical development, or the will of a person, or, nareshti, to serve moral goals. Look at Plinia, who was saved by the old Christians, and moreover, the endless interest that people showed up to yogo speculations, often explain why Plinia was saved to this day.

The remaining biologist of old (in the right meaning of the word) buv Galen (131–200 pp. AD) is a Roman doctor, a native of Asia Minor. The First Rocks of Medical Practice Galen Provіv in the Arena of Gladiators. The exultation of people who suffered an injury allowed them to pick up rich anatomical material. However, even though the moderns did not quarrel against the zhorstok and crooked іgors of gladiators for a long time to the zealous relish of the public, which is rejoicing, the stench continued to unfairly marvel at the growth of human corpses for scientific purposes. Therefore, Galen carried out anatomical studies more importantly on dogs, animals and other creatures. The mood was suddenly showing up, roaring the mavp, knowing in them there is a great similarity with the people.

Galen having left the great scientific recession. The extensively developed theories about the functions of various organs of the human body have played an important role in the development of medicine. Prote the impossibility of the human organism in a right way, the presence of that hour of the necessary tools, no doubt, caused the pardon of the greatness of yoga theories. Not being a Christian, Galen still firmly believes in the foundation of one God. Like before Pliny, I thought that everything alive was created with a predetermined method. Everywhere in the body, people of wines have shown the divine works. Such a thought, entirely acceptable at the beginning of Christianity, explains the popularity of Galen at the last hour.

Today, biology succumbs to the roots of antiquity, we know the turns in the civilizations of the past thousand years: in Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece.

The first student, having created the scientific medical school, was the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (bl. 460 - bl. 370 BC). Vіn vvazhav, scho skin ailments may be natural causes, and їх it is possible to recognize, vivchayuchi life and life of the human body. From a long time ago, and until this day, the doctors sing the "Oath of Hippocrates" urochistnoy, obіtsyayuchi save the medical secret and for everyday conditions do not leave the ailing without medical assistance.

The great encyclopedist of antiquity Aristotle (384 - 322 BC) became one of the founders of biology as a science, having first recognized biological knowledge, accumulated to the new by humanity. Vіn having developed the taxonomy of creatures, naming people in this world, calling them “a suspenseful creature, endowed with reason.” Many works of Aristotle were consecrated to life.

Ancient Roman teachings and doctor Claudius Galen (bleb. 130 - ble. 200), developing life skills, laying the foundations of human anatomy. For the coming fifteen hundred years of yoga practice, the basic knowledge of anatomy became the core.

In the Middle Ages in Europe, having fallen into a period of stagnation, knowledge in all galleys. At this time, the traditions of ancient authors knew their production in the lands of Front and Middle Asia, where they lived and worked in such vicious circles, like Abu Ali ibn Sina (Avitsenna) (bl. 980-1037) and Abu Reihan Muhammad ibn Ahmet al-Biruni (973 ) -bl. 1050). From that hour, in modern anatomical nomenclature, the impersonal Arabic terms were saved.

The coming era of Renaissance marked the beginning of a new period in the development of biology.

There is a strong interest in biology for the achievements of the Great Geographical Records (XV century). The introduction of new lands, the improvement of trade vodnosin between the powers expanded the information about the creature and the growth. Botanists and zoologists described impersonal new, previously unknown species of organisms, which belong to the various kingdoms of living nature.

One of the most beautiful people of the era of Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) described the richness of the growth, the life of the human body, the activity of the heart and the golden function.

In addition, as the church fence was built on the wall of the human body, the anatomy of the human body, which was in the classic practice of Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) “About the Budova of the Human Body”, reached brilliant success. The greatest scientific achievement - vodkrittya krovobіgu - zrobiv XVII century. English physician and biologist William Harvey (1578-1657).

A new era in the development of biology was marked by the wine-making of the late 16th century. microscope. Already in the middle of the XVII century. bula excrement clitin, and later revealed the light of microscopic istots - the simplest and bacteria, cultivated the development of coma and important spermatozoa.

At the XVIII century. Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) propagated the system of classification of living nature and established a binary (underwine) nomenclature for naming species.

Karl Ernst Behr (Karl Maksimovich Behr) (1792-1876), professor of the St. Petersburg Medical and Surgical Academy, developing intrauterine development, establishing that the origins of all creatures at the early stages of development are similar, formulating the law of germinal substantiation in the history of science

The first biologist, who tried to create a string and a whole theory of the evolution of the living world, became the French scholar Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1774–1829). Paleontology, the science of living creatures and growing, was created by the French zoologist Georges Cuve (1769-1832).

A great role was played by the theory of the zoologist Theodor Schwann (1810-1882) and the botanist Matthias Jakob Schleiden (1804-1881).

The greatest achievements of the XIX century. was the evolutionary vision of Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882), as it had little initial significance in the formation of a modern natural picture of the world.

Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884) became the founder of genetics, the science of recession and sluggishness;

One of the founders of contemporary microbiology was the German scholar Robert Koch (1843-1910), and the clergymen Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) and Illy Illich Mechnikov (1845-1916) marked the emergence of immunology.

The development of physiology is connected with the names of the great Russian scientists Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov (1829-1905), who laid the foundation for the development of the highest nervous activity, that Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936), who created a lesson about mental reflection.

XX Art. marked by a boisterous development of biology. Mutation theory by Hugh de Vries (1848-1935), chromosomal decay theory by Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866-1945) Alexander Fleming (1881-1955), DNA structure established by James Watson (born 1928) and Francis Crick (1916-2004) - impossible to overthrow all the quiet, who created their own self-made practice of modern biology, as in this hour, one of the most turbulent areas of human knowledge.

■ System of biological sciences. Contemporary biology is the sum total of the natural sciences, as they develop life as a special form of the foundation of matter. One of the first in biology was complex sciences: zoology, botany, anatomy and physiology. Later, in the middle of them, more higher disciplines were formed, for example, ichthyology (the science of ribs), entomology (about coma), arachnology (about spiders), etc. appeared in the middle of zoology. The difference in the power of the living is the subject of study of such sciences as genetics (patterns of inconsistency and decline), ethology (behavior), embryology (individual development), evolutionary development (historical development).

At the middle of the XX century. in biology began to actively penetrate the methods and ideas of other natural sciences. On the cordons of various disciplines, new biological sciences were directly blamed: biochemistry, biophysics, biogeography, molecular biology, space biology and many others. The widespread use of mathematics in biology called out to the people of biometrics. The successes of ecology, as well as the daedals of the actual problems of nature conservation, have fostered the development of an ecological approach in most biology galleries.

At the turn of the XX and XXI Art. With great swedishness, biotechnology began to develop - directly, for sure, without a doubt, the future lies ahead. The rest of the reach of this galusi opens up broad prospects for the creation of biologically active speech and new medicinal preparations, for the treatment of spontaneous diseases and the development of selection on the clitinic level.

In this hour, biology has become a real productive force, the development of which can be judged by the fierce development of human society.

Encouragement for self-control.

1. Tell me about the contribution from the development of the biology of ancient Greek and ancient Roman philosophers and doctors.

2. Describe the features of looking at the living nature in the Middle Ages, the era of the Renaissance.

3. Yakiy vinakhid XVII cent. did it give you the opportunity to express and describe the clitin?

4. What is the significance for the biological science of the work of L. Pasteur and I. I. Mechnikov?

5. Resurrect the main findings, broken in biology in the XX century.

6. Name the natural sciences for you to establish biology. What are their names for example of the 20th century?

Vіn zahistiv dissertation, in a way trying to know the "laws of origin" of all organic bodies, and consequently vіn after looking at them "the birth of growths", "the birth of creatures" and, nareshti, "the laws of the birth of organic bodies". The wolf raised an important vіdkrittya, twisting the stems, leafing that flowers. Vіn having revealed, what is at the tops of the skin leak, what is growth, it is especially “a point or a surface growth”. Before Wolff, the process of "grooving" (evolutio) nirk, slips and sheets was a classic butt of preformation. Wolf's assertion, that in the middle of a leaf brunka there is no scatter of a commemorative leaf, only an "internal substance of growth", which gives rise to the rudiments of leafing from itself, has become the starting point of the new principle of development. It is more important to work with K.F. Wolf, stitching the design of the card. Having taken away his final vchennya about the metamorphosis of growth, having taken away from the new in the robotic St. Petersburg period (1767), in the same year he declares: All parts of the growth, behind the vine of the stem, є, oh, no change to the leaves. The story about the metamorphosis of growth is an unparalleled historical merit of K.F. Wolf. So, you should see for the development of a chicken egg that you are nasidzhuetsya. Having revealed the adoptions of the "blood islands", as if they were then transformed into blood-bearing judges; wines describing the adoption of kintsivok, primary nirok and other organs. Such a brief warning of Wolf, allowed him to discover the theory of preformation and hang the idea of ​​​​the right development of growth and creatures. In 1767 p. Wolf arrives in Russia, and in the spring of the same fate he presents his new work “On the Adoption of the Intestine of the Curly”. Tse Nayzrіlіsha Pratsya K.F. Wolf is a suvoro scientific treatise, in some wines it is truncated in the latest natural-philosophical references; I formulate the fundamental principle of the development of organs: channel." K.F. Volf casually repeating that the regularities revealed by him are "the main proof of epigenesis." The founders of the collection of the Kunstkammer, they wrote numerical anatomical works, which were published for 25 years in the workshops of the St. Petersburg Academy, and they wrote at least 1000 sides, descriptions of