The kingdom of nuclear, pre-nuclear organisms. Pre-nuclear organisms Nuclear organisms

10. Vacuole 11. Hyaloplasm 12. Lysosome 13. Centrosome (Centriole)

eukaryoti, or Nuclear(Lat. Eucaryota type Greek. εύ- - good κάρυον - core) - the super-kingdom of living organisms, cells that avenge the core. All organisms, Crimean bacteria and archives, are nuclear.

Budov eukaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells in the average are richer than prokaryotic ones, the difference in the contract reaches thousands of times. Cells of eukaryotes include about a dozen types of different structures, including both organelles (or organelles, so, really, actually, it contributes to the primary meaning of the term), and a wide variety of features in the cytoplasm, one or decalcom membranes. In prokaryotic clitins, a clitin membrane is always present, ribosomes (mostly present in eukaryotic ribosomes) and genetic material - a bacterial chromosome, or a genophore, proteo-internal organoids, sharpened by a membrane, are rarely streaked. The nucleus is the whole part of the clitin, sharpened in eukaryotes by an inferior membrane (two elementary membranes) and containing genetic material: DNA molecules, “packed” into chromosomes. The nucleus sings alone, and then the rich-nuclear cells are bubbling. Podіl on kingdoms Іsnuє kіlka variantіv subdivision of the super-kingdom of eukaryotes to the kingdoms. The first to be seen were the kingdoms of the Roslins and the creatures. Then the kingdom of mushrooms was seen, though, through biochemical peculiarities, in the opinion of more biologists, they cannot be insured to the one of these kingdoms. Likewise, the authors see the kingdoms of the simplest, myxomycetes, and chromistes. Acts of the system are present up to 20 kingdoms. Vidminnosti eukaryotes vіd prokaryotyv The most important main feature of eukaryotic clitins is related to the development of the genetic apparatus in the clitin. The genetic apparatus of all eukaryotes is located in the nucleus and is protected by the nuclear membrane (in Greek, "eukaryote" means the nucleus, which is possible). The DNA of eukaryotes is linear (in prokaryotes, the DNA is calico and floats freely in the cytoplasm). It is associated with histone proteins and other chromosomal proteins, which are not found in bacteria. In the life cycle of eukaryotes, there are two nuclear phases present (haplophase and diplophase). The first phase is characterized by a haploid (single) set of chromosomes, then, merging, two haploid clitins (or two nuclei) establish a diploid clitin (nucleus) to replace the subvariant (diploid) set of chromosomes. Through the sprat, the clitin becomes haploid again. Such a cycle of life and diploidy is not typical for prokaryotes. Thirdly, perhaps, the most important thing is the presence of special organelles in eukaryotic clitins, as they may have their own genetic apparatus, which are propagated by rozpodil and otochenny membrane. These organelles are mitochondria and plastidi. For its everyday life and life, the stench is completely similar to bacteria. Tsya environment has spurred modern scientists to think that similar organisms are bacteria, which have become symbiotic with eukaryotes. Prokaryotes are characterized by a small number of organelles and each of them is not sharpened by a subvariant membrane. Prokaryotes have no endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, or lysosomes. It is no less important, describing the difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes, to say about such a phenomenon in eukaryotic cells, like phagocytosis. Phagocytosis (literally "poїdannya") is the name given to the ability of eukaryotic cells to swallow and overetch various hard particles. This process ensures an important function in the body. Vpershe vin buv vіdkritiy I.I. Mechnikov at sea stars. The appearance of phagocytosis in eukaryotes is more likely to be caused by the average differences (there is a report about the differences in the details). The number of prokaryotic clitins is inconspicuously smaller, and in the process of evolutionary development, before eukaryotes, the problem of lowering the body of the great number of hedgehogs was blamed, as the last ones in the group of eukaryotes are the first huts. Most of the bacteria can be clitin wall, vіdmіnnu vіd eukaryotic (far from all eukaryotes can be її). In prokaryotes, there is a structure that is formed by the head rank of mureina. Budova mureina is like that, that the skin tissue is honed with a special mesh, that is one majestic molecule. Among the eukaryotes of the clitin wall, mushrooms and growths are washed. In fungi, it is formed from chitin and glucans, in lower roslins, cellulose and glycoproteins, diatoms, algae synthesize clitin wall from silicic acids, in higher roslins, from cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin. Perhaps it has become impossible for the great eukaryotic clitins to create a clitin wall from one molecule of the temple for the muscle. Tsya furnishing could zmusit eukaryotes vikoristovuvat Іnshiy material for kіtinnoї wall. Raznomanitny and exchange of speech in bacteria. You can see chotiri tipsi eating in a zagal, and the middle of the bacteria are growing mustache. These are photoautotrophic, photoheterotrophic, chemoautotrophic, chemoheterotrophic (phototrophic vicory to produce the energy of sony light, chemotrophic to vicory to produce the chemical energy). Eucaryotes themselves synthesize the energy from the sleepy light, or the vicorist is ready to use the energy of such a journey. Tse mozhe buti with the appearance of the middle of eukaryotes hizhakiv, the need to synthesize energy, which was lost. Another one vіdminnіst - budova dzhgutikov. In bacteria, the stench is thin - only 15-20 nm in diameter. All empty threads from protein to flagellin. Budova's jgutikіv eukaryotіv richly folded. The stench is a virist clitin, a membrane exudate, and a cytoskeleton (axoneme) of nine pairs of peripheral microtubules and two microtubules at the center. At the sight of prokaryotic flagella, which wrap around, the flagella of eukaryotes fold or call. Two groups of organisms analyzed by us, as indicated, are strongly challenged by their average dimensions. The diameter of the prokaryotic cells should become 0.5-10 microns, if the same indicator in eukaryotes becomes 10-100 microns. Obsyag such cells in 1000-10000 times more, lower prokaryotic. In prokaryotes, ribosomes are different (70S-type). Eukaryotes have larger ribosomes (80S-type). Maybe, it’s time for the vindication of these groups. The first prokaryotes vincluded in the process of evolution about 3.5 billion years ago, in which case eukaryotic organisms emerged about 1.2 billion years ago.

Yakih to wash the core. Eukaryotes may be all organisms, Crimean bacteria (viruses can be seen up to other categories, as not all biologists see as a category of living things). Before eukaryotes lie down roslini, critters, mushrooms and this kind of living organisms, like slime molds. Eukaryotes share on unicellular organismsі richly clitinous but the principle of being a clitin in all of them is the same.

It is important that the first eucaryotes appeared about 2 billion years ago and evolved richly into what zavdyaki symbiogenesis- interchange of cells of eukaryotes and bacteria, yakі tsі cells died, being built up to phagocytosis.

Eukaryotic cells there may be a great rosemary, especially among those who are close to prokaryotes. In the eukaryotic clitin there are about ten organoids, most of them are membrane-bound in the cytoplasm, which is not found in prokaryotes. So eucaryotes wash the core, we have already talked about yaks. The whole part of the clitiny, which is exposed to the cytoplasm with a subvіynoy membrane. The very part of the clitin contains DNA, which is located on the chromosomes. Cells sound like mononuclear cells, but sometimes they trap with rich-nuclear cells.

Kingdoms of eukaryotes.

Є kіlka variantіv podіlu eukarіotіv. The heart of all living organisms was divided only into growth and creatures. We have seen the kingdom of mushrooms for a year, and they are constantly growing in the first, and in the others. Later, they began to see slime molds.

slime molds- this polyphyletic group of organisms simple, but the classification of these organisms is not sufficiently classified. At one of the stages of the development of the organisms, the plasmodial form is formed - the whole mucosal speech, as there are no clear hard curves. The slime people look like they are alone rich nuclear clitina Yak can be seen with an indefatigable glance.

Mushrooms of mucilaginous spores are able to produce sporulation, as well as to germinate with zoospores, including plasmodia.

Slime molds heterotrophs, buildings to eat visually in order to soak the life of the speech without a middle through the membrane, or endocytosis - take the inside of the bulb with the life of the speech. Acrasia, myxomycetes, labirintulae and plasmodiophores are brought to the mucous membranes.

Visibility of prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Head Office prokaryotes and eukaryotes are those that do not have a formed nucleus in prokaryotes, which is reinforced by a membrane overlooking the cytoplasm. In prokaryotes, the calcic DNA is found in the cytoplasm, and the place where the DNA is found is called the nucleoid.

Dodatkovі vіdminnosti eukaryotіv.

1. Organoids of prokaryotes may be less ribosomes 70S (more), and eukaryotes may have not only large 80S ribosomes, but also many other organoids.
2. Since there are no nuclei in prokaryotes, then sharing the stench in two is not for help meiosis/mitosis.
3. Eucaryotes have histones, which are not found in microbes. Chromantin in eukaryotes covers 1/3 of DNA and 2/3 of protein, in prokaryotes everything is the same.
4. The clitina of eukaryotes is 1000 times greater for the circumference and 10 times greater for the diameter, the clitina of prokaryotes is lower.

Pre-nuclear organisms (Procaryota)

Single-clitin and rich-cell organisms without a water-silvered nucleus. genetic information is stored on a single chromosome. The range of prokaryotes was from 0.015 to 20 cm. Prokaryotes are subdivided into two kingdoms: bacteria and cyanobiotes. eating stench affects the process of chemo- and photosynthesis.

Kingdom of bacteria

bacteria are microscopic organisms, the size of which is close to 1-5 microns (micromicrons). One-celled bacteria can have a filamentous, rod-like, spiral form. Among the bacteria there are autotrophic and heterotrophic forms. The first ones create organic and inorganic speeches; other vicorists are ready for organic speeches. Most bacteria are autotrophic. Processes of exchange of stench go without any light (chemosynthesis), but only light (photosynthesis). For the types of speech exchange, bacteria are supra-linguistically different. Distinguish sirkoutvoryuyuchi, rich-manganese, nitrogen, acetate, carbonaceous and other groups of bacteria. The role of bacteria in geological processes is great. The adoption of various brown copalins is connected with this activity: saline ores (jespilitiv, salivary concretions), pyrite, sulfur, graphite, phosphorites, naphtha, gas and other.

Reliable knowledge of bacteria from siliceous rocks, for 6.5 billion years. More than anything, the bacteria appeared independently in different dovkilli. In this hour, stinks inhabit all water pools from the littoral to the absalis, and also linger near the ground, near the ground, in the middle of other organisms. The stench lives in hot springs at a temperature that exceeds 100 degrees Celsius, and in salty waters with a sodium chloride concentration of up to 32%.

Kingdom of Tsianobionti

Alone and colonial organisms with clitins without a water-silvered nucleus. The size of single forms is close to 10 microns, and the size of colonies and products of their life (stromatoliths) is a lot of hundreds of rocks. Accumulation of carbonates is accumulated in the organisms, which lead to further formation of vapes. Vapnian sharuvats are called stromatolites. Stromatolity is distinguished by the shape of the bud, the type of structure. The stench can be in a layered, nodular, or stuppchast form. Oncolitis, in the form of stromatolitis, are represented by small rounded dentures with a diameter of up to a few centimeters.

Stromatolity is the result of symbiosis of cyanobiontiv and bacteria. Utvorennya stromatolitiv vіdbuvaєtsya in such a way. Mucous membranes have calcium. After the death of the body, the carbonate streak is depleted, as it sizzles with litter. Repeated cycles of growth of cyanobiontiv and bacterium are produced to the formation of folding carbonate tovsch with an intensification of up to 1000 m. The form of all buds of stromatolites to fall due to environmental factors, and to that they can be victorious for the restoration of the physical and geographical situation of the past basins: salinity, temperature, depth, hydrodynamics. Cyanobionti took an active part in the life of the biostral and ….

Tsianobionti appeared about 3.5 billion years ago. The signs of the presence of chlorophyll, the first photosynthetic organisms, vibrated molecular oxygen. Such cyanobionty live near fresh and sea waters, mainly at depths up to 20 m. Temperature range from ice-cold to minus to boiling (85 degrees) in hot jerseys. According to the presence of cyanobiont nuclei, they are close to bacteria, due to the presence of chlorophyll and building up to photosynthesis - algae.

Superkingdom of nuclear organisms (Eucaryota)

One is the richly clitinous organism, which is subdivided into three sub-kingdoms: roslin, mushrooms, creatures. At the sight of prokaryotes, the stink of the stink of the core of the Kremlin. diameter of eukaryotes, 10 µm (single-clitin) up to 33 m (whale's valley) and 100 m (one of coniferous heights). Eukaryotes are prokaryotes' covers. The stench showed up on the level of 1.7-1.5 billion years (PR1). Roslini on the contrary to the creatures of the building path of photosynthesis to create organic sprouts from inorganic ones. The stench of other cells, the process of assimilation. The form is іsnuvannya, most importantly neruhoma (including passively floating plankton).

Realm of Roslini (Phyta)

Riznomanіtnі, most importantly unruly, one is richly clitinous, which can make the upper rіst. Photosynthesis is characteristic of all plants: for additional energy it is light, which is smoothed by chlorophyll, stench sees molecular sour and creates organic and inorganic ones. The clitina of the roslin is formed from the cytoplasm, which avenges the nucleus, the vacuoles are empty and organoids - independent internal clitin. The hard cellulose shell of the clitin is permeated with vapors, often seeps out with salts and mineralizes.

The kingdom of the Roslins is subdivided into two sub-kingdoms - lower (Thallophyta) and higher (Telomophyta). The lower plants live near the waterways. Tse algae. The stench live on the depths up to 200 m and in the middle of them, like the bottom - benthic, so pelagic - plankton. Vishchi roslini live in terrestrial minds in all latitudes. Roslins are taken from the vikopny camp at the view of the small parts (stem, leaf, root, nasinnya), which facilitates the reconstruction of their view.



Abstract on the topic: Pre-nuclear organisms

INSTUP

1. KINGDOM OF PRE-NUCLEAR ABO KINGDOM OF PROKARYOTES

2. BUDOV PROKARYOT

2.1. Klitina

2.2. Jgutiki

2.3. They drank that fimbria

2.4. Plasma membrane, mesosome and photosynthetic membrane

2.5. genetic material

3. DESIGNATION OF PROKARYOTES

4. WAY OF LIVING PROKARYOTES

5. MAIN PROKARYOT GROUPS

5.1. Bacteria - phototrophy

5.2. Bacteria are chemoautotrophs

5.3 Bacteria - organotrophy

6. Blue-green algae

WISNOVOK

REFERENCES

INSTUP

Before pre-nuclear organisms - prokaryotes, there are the simplest one-cell organisms. They call them bacteria or microbes.

So the blue-green algae can be seen right up to the prokaryotes. In my work, I will try to describe the life of prokaryotes, their reproduction, the way of life, the main groups of prokaryotes.

Microorganisms play a great role in our life with you, so this is a topic for me.

Prokaryotes can be victorious in medicine. Until the other half of the last century, medicine practically could not succumb to ailments, vicked by bacteria. Most of the doctors can cope with them successfully. That, I respect, that this topic is relevant and today.

1. KINGDOM OF PRE-NUCLEAR ABO KINGDOM OF PROKARYOTES

All species of one-cell and rich-to-cell organisms naturally divide into two great groups - prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

All prokaryotes belong to one kingdom Drobnyaki, represented by bacteria and blue-green algae.

Clitini of prokaryotes (Greek pro - before, karion - core) do not form a formed core. In other words, the genetic material (DNA) of prokaryotes is found directly in the cytoplasm and does not pass through the nuclear membrane. Two groups of bacteria are seen: archebacteria (Greek: Archaios - most recent) and eubacteria.

2. BUDOV PROKARYOT

Prokaryotes are significantly larger than viruses (on average 0.5 - 5 microns), most of them can be more similar to virus viruses. The greatest bacteria can be seen with an indefinable eye at the sight of dots and sticks, but not the least of the vines. Sound, prokaryotic cells unwind under an optical microscope. First of all, bacteria for example XVII the centenarian Dutch naturalist A. van Leeuwenhoek at the simplest microscope - a magnifying glass with one crystal-like drop-like lens.

2.1. Klitina

The prokaryotic clitina sounded covered with a shell (clitin wall), like a roslin clitina. Ale, this spring is folded, like a car tire, the shell is not made of cellulose, but of mureina, which is close to it (Latin “mura” - wall). Deyakі bacteria (and mycoplasmas themselves) have infiltrated the tunic suddenly.

2.2. Jgutiki

A lot of bacteria make flagella. The flagella are composed of the same spherical subunits of the protein flagelin (similar to the mucosal actin), which are folded in a spiral and form an empty cylinder with a diameter of about 10–20 nm. Ignoring the shabby shape of the jgutikov, the stench is to suck the zhorstki.

Jgutiki collapse for the help of a unique mechanism. The basis of the jgutik wraps around, maybe, so that the jgutik hіba sho turns into the middle, not rolyaches of the besotted battles and, in such a rank, pushes the clitina forward. Tse, obviously, is the only structure in nature, defiance of the principle of the wheel.

Another peculiarity of the flagella is the construction of four flagellin subunits spontaneously selected from the spiral thread. Spontaneous self-folding - the power of richness of folding biological structures is also important. In this case, the self-selection is bound by the amino acid sequence (primary structure) flagelin. Ruhlivі bacteria can get overwhelmed by the odors of the underwear, so that the stench of the building to taxis.

Jgutiki easier to look at the electron microscope, having stopped the technique of metal filing. Flagella can be up to a few dozen.

2.3. They drank that fimbria

On the clinical surface of some gram-negative bacteria one can see thin veins (stick-like white protrusions), which are called pili or fimbria. The stinks are short and thin jgutikov and serve for attaching clitin one to one or to the surface, giving a specific "stickiness" to these strains, like a stench may. They drank, they were of a different type. The most famous cicadas are called F-files, as they are encoded with a special plasmid and are related to stature reproduction of bacteria.

2.4. Plasma membrane, mesosome and photosynthetic membrane

Like in all clitins, the protoplasm of bacteria is sharpened with a non-penetrating membrane. In some bacteria, the plasma membrane is drawn into the middle of the clitinum and forms mesosomes or photosynthetic membranes.

Mesosome- Folding membrane structures, on the surface of which there are enzymes that take part in the process of digestion. Also, mesosomes can be called primitive organelles. Under the hour of the clitin sublayer of the mesosome, they bind to DNA, which, perhaps, easier subdivided two daughter DNA molecules after replication and adherence to the establishment of the septum between the daughter clitins.

2.5. genetic material

Bacterial DNA is represented by single ring molecules with a length of about 1 mm. Such a skin molecule consists of 5-100 pairs of nucleotides. The total amount of DNA (genome) in bacterial cells is much smaller, lower in eukaryotic, and, also, smaller, and generally encoded in this information. The average person has such a DNA to revenge a sprat of thousands of genes.

Form the clitin of prokaryotes to do it simply: bags ( coca), sometimes two by two (subwinning coca- diplococci); appease the lancers ( streptococci) or glued together like a grape gron ( staphylococci/ type Greek. stafilus - grapes), glued on chotiri ( sartsini); sticks ( bacilli), curved sticks ( vibrioni); corkscrew-like ( spirals). Wherever it is, the rounded shapes of the clitin are sharpened.

The simplicity of the form makes it difficult to accurately designate prokaryotes at a glance. Navpaki, physiology of their flooring is different, but in microbiology in the description of a new species or a variety of shoes, it is indicated what the microorganism will require and how the products vibrate, then the main characteristics of the exchange with the necessary medium.

3. DESIGNATION OF PROKARYOTES

Prokaryotes reproduce most often under the bed of the clitin. Ridshe zustrichaetsya brunkuvannya, if a young cell, scho vіdshnurovuєtsya, richly dribnisha for the mother. The cells, which have been divided, are often overgrown at once, making threads, and sometimes folding structures. In sympathetic minds, prokaryotes grow more quickly, following a geometric progression. Having hoarded all the resources, the population continues to grow. Dali number of їх can be reduced through the destruction of the products of their own exchange. At the flowing medium, the speed of the growth is constant and lie down in the temperature and the amount of water. Therefore, there are no bacteria in filtering the spring water through the soil - the stench does not multiply to the point that it can be blamed for between the dzherel.

In unfriendly minds, deak bacteria make super-chicks - stages that need to rest, covered with a thin membrane. Looks like a super river stench to blame the high temperature, sometimes it’s more like 100 0 W are overwhelmed by life rich lives. Navpaki, clitiny are more prokaryotes that grow, divide, die already at 80 0 C. However, lovers of high temperatures are thermophiles, who live near hot dzherela.

Microbiologists often grow bacteria on the surface of a solid medium in meat broth with gelatin or agar. Klitina, which she drank on the surface of this life-giving jelly, begins to spread and establish a colony (a song-forming flame and color), in a kakіy mustache of clitiny - the covers of one, the first. It is even wider with the use of a pure line of microbes.

4. WAY OF LIVING PROKARYOTES

Although micro-organisms are unremarkable in nature, the stench is broader in the majestic kіlkosti skіz, especially near the ground. Almost the entire image of the Earth is created by them. Practically everyone can eat the stench, except for the creation of human plastics, and wipe off the right powders. Everything else can be conquered by different bacteria.

Microorganisms characterize by nature the three essential components of life: energy, carbon and water.

Water is consumed not by itself, but like a jerelo of electrons:

Н 2 → 2Н + + 2е ¬, to that it can be replaced by other half-elements that are easy to remove electrons.

For energy, two categories of organisms are distinguished: phototrophy(like vikoristovuyut sleepy light) that chemotrophy(what victorious energy chemical bonds in the living speeches).

Behind the dzherel they see the coal autotrophy(CO 2) that heterotrophy(Organic speech). Zreshtoy, for the dzherel water (electronics) are divided organotrophy(what to save organics) that lithotrophy(shozhivayut neobov'yazkovo kaminnya / in Greek "Lіtos" - kamin), and virobnichi lithosphere - kam'yanoy obolonok Earth; ce can but i itself H 2 i NH 3 H 2 S, S, SO, Fe 2+ and so on.

For such a classification, earthly growths are photolithotrophs (light stones), creatures are chemoorganotrophs (organoids). In the world of prokaryotes, the most amazing days are becoming more and more important.

Prokaryotes have yet another miraculous power, which is to save all things organisms. Wanting nitrogen (N 2) in Greek means “mlyaviy”, wine is necessary for life, that wine can enter the warehouse of the main warehouses - proteins and nucleic acids. Ale to conquer atmospheric nitrogen, neither plants, nor creatures not in the earth, they can only work less than prokaryotes, more often converting it to ammonia (NH 3), then converting it to nitrite (NO 2) and nitrate (NO 3). Before the development of chemical industry, we lived with additional bacteria. This process, going in the acid-free medium, to that microorganism that binds nitrogen, made special attachments for sourness and acidity.

5. MAIN PROKARYOT GROUPS

5.1. Bacteria - phototrophy

A lot of bacteria vikoristovuyut light like a jet of energy. All stinks are spiced in red, orange, green and blue-green colors; even in order to let the light shine through like a robot, it can be clayed with a barn - pigment. Bacteria are different chlorophyllі carotenoids.

Purple sulfur bacteria take water (electrons) out of the water (H 2 S), oxidizing it to sulfur and sulfates. Purple non-sulfur bacteria possess a variety of organic speeches.

Terrestrial bacteria can also absorb H2S, molecular water and organic matter. Most of them can bind molecular nitrogen. The stinks linger, most of all, by the water basins on the surface of the mule, the deaks in hot jerseys.

Peculiarities of bacterial photosynthesis in ciomu, which is seen in the new kisen (Pro 2). Such photosynthesis is called anoxygenic (non-kissnevim).

We also call vicorist the energy of sony vibrating cyanobacteria(they were inaccurately called blue-green algae). The stench splits water and vicorist water, and molecular sour is seen in the atmosphere. It is important that cyanobacteria themselves, with their oxygenic photosynthesis, sour the atmosphere of our planet.

Cyanobacteria stalk up to the butt and industrial zabrudnennya, crying out "flowering" and psuvannya near waterways, lakes, dams. The stench can live on coastal stones and skeletons, in the mountains and deserts (enough dew), in hot pots.

Ale unacceptability, which sometime are infected with cyanobacteria, can be “vibacciated”, and not only for those who stink when they splintered the atmosphere of the Earth, adding to our breath, seeing the sour fumes.

These organisms actively bind atmospheric nitrogen, ensuring the yield of rice irrigation and the productivity of other waters.

5.2. Bacteria are chemoautotrophs

A lot of bacteria take away the energy of vicorous and inorganic speech: ammonia, nitrite, sepsis, bivalent ions and other metals. Dzherelom vugletsyu їm є carbon dioxide gas. Bacteria can be seen before them, which convert ammonia into nitrite - into nitrate. Other bacteria take energy for their growth, oxidizing half of the blood:

H 2 S → S → SO 3 2- → SO 4 2-

So, like a sirka and a sirkovodny often zustrichayutsya in hot volcanic dzherelah, tsі bacterii there zvichayn. Metallurgists of ancient times, zokrema and Russia, highly valued the swamp ore, lied in the swamps. From them, on the wooden vugill, there was a high-yielding, clear sun. Qi ore is created by bacteria, oxidizing bivalently to trivalent:

Fe 2+ → Fe 3+.

Deyakі іz zalizobakterіy can oxidize і і іrku, converting sulphate yak sulfіdіdi іza, and іnshikh metals. None of these bacteria help metallurgy, vilugovuyuchi іz bіdni ores, zinc, antimony, nickel, manganese, molybdenum and uranium. It is simplest to pass water with bacteria through this ball of fine rock and take water with sulfates of ferrous metals. Usі іnshі ways here vyyavlyayutsya ekonomіchno nevigіdnimi.

5.3 Bacteria - organotrophy

Now let's move on to bacteria, which support organic speech. Since the last century, the great French chemist and microbiologist L. Pasteur realized that without microorganisms, rotting and wandering, it would be impossible to transform organic matter into inorganic forms of NH3, H2S, CO2, H2O. The very stinks flicker around the circle of biogenic speeches on our planet, supplying green roslins- phytotrophs need "syrovina". Microorganisms are too tough for human plastics, so wipe off the right powders. Therefore, the stench accumulates in the navkolyshny middle and already begins to threaten the very foundation of the person herself.

From microorganisms - organotrophs, most of all, people stop at their practice of bacteria, like vicorist, like a wandering energy reaction. These processes go without the participation of sour microorganisms, which do not require H2O, are called anaerobes.

Razrіznyayut obov'yazkovі, oblіgatnі anaerobes, for such vіlny kisen є deadly; that neobov'yazykovyh, facultative, yaki easy to move from wandering to sour breath.

Lactic acid fermentation bacteria take energy by converting carbohydrates into lactic acid. Tsya reaction goes and in the m'yazah with the arc of the robotic voltage, if the blood does not reach the kisen. Ale, in our organisms, we can’t go out for a long time - lactic acid, which dissolves in case of cioma, which physiologists vehemently call "toxin in the toxin", instill m'yaz. Lactic acid bacteria transform milk into sour milk, kefir and kumis. The stench makes sour sour, various varieties of syrup, sauerkraut and ogirkiv, silage.

Other bacteria with brodin see other organic acids: propionic, murashina, octova, succinic, as well as other slugs. Deyakі їх vikoristovuyut at khіmіchnіy industry.

Let's move on to prokaryotes, yaks stuck to life on the covers and intestines of creatures. Among them are korisn for their masters. Cows, and all living creatures, have a great amount of bacteria in their folding shoes, which break down cellular tissue (cellulose). Other intestinal bacteria supply the rulers with vitamins. Among them, there are simply “nahlіbniks”, yakі do not bring direct coristi, but do not baiduzhi for the rulers.

The person is not blameless, on our skin there are a lot of bacteria that keep the organic speech sweat. Mi periodically zmivaemo їx, but yakscho tsі bacterії znikit everything, for example, when zlovzhivnі antibiotics mіstse, scho zvіlnilos, occupy dіzhdzhodzhopodіbnі fungi, yakі can vyklikati skіrnі ailments.

Ale, unimaginably more bacteria in our intestines. Human feces are 30% by weight composed of bacteria. Mainly suvori obligatnі anaerobes from the genus Bactericides. Less for facultative anaerobes, which can multiply in a sour atmosphere. Among them, I found the intestinal stick. Intestinal stick is easy to viroshchuvat and in the laboratory. The bacterium is born, so many decades to serve as a favorite object of molecular biology and genetic engineering.

These are bacteria that cause ailments. The disease of dysentery is widely spread. A dysentery stick, multiplying in the intestines, causing some unsafe discord (“bloody carryover”). Salmonella typhoid fever. All stinks are called "ailments of the grotesque hands", but you can get infected with them through flies, fermenting that water. Even more unsafe cholera, її vibrating one of the species of vibrio - facultative anaerobe, which spreads through the winter waters. Clitini її see an unsafe poison, in view of which the cells of the intestinal mucosa are destroyed, the body consumes rich water, and in the event of a flood, death can occur.

A lot of bacteria oppose the wild ways, as a result of which people are sick to angina. Similar to her in symptoms, but invisibly unsafe diphtheria, which calls out with a stick of a mace-like peculiar form. Vaughn opposes the empty ziva of that migdalini. The diphtheria wand is not safe on its own, it’s less likely to be different, like to avenge the “taming” of the virus - “freeloader”. Cei virus virolyaet toxin that blocks protein synthesis in eukaryotic clitins, including in the heart meat, nerves and nerves. Particularly unsafe is diphtheria for children. There is a wide variety of forms of pneumonia (inflammation of the lungs), which are called pneumococci.

Even on the cob of a century, the word tuberculosis instilled a zhah, like an infection of SNID. At that hour, the ailment that opposes the sound of legends, bula is not vilіkovna. Aleone can attack other organs (cyst tuberculosis). Calling out so called " stick Koch”, in the name of which he described її R. Koch, the great German microbiologist. Lie Koch's stick to microbacteria. Before her, the close alarm clock of leprosy is the most severe and important ailment.

Other microbacteria live in the soil, people from them can win such speeches as naphtha, paraffin, naphthalene. At the same time, tuberculosis forks, but, like before, it is taken in by a serious ailment.

For a long time ago, the scourge of mankind was the plague, as in the Middle Ages the cities died out. Tsya ailment is called out by a plague wand. Vlasne plague is a disease of rodents. Vіd them to the people are carried by fleas. Navit at once, regardless of the splitting of that face, the plague rejoices importantly. It's easier to get ahead of її sleeping bags.

Corkscrew-like twisted microorganism - spirochetes - can also be a wake-up caller of unsafe ailments; typhoid fever, infectious zhovtyanitsa, syphilis.

Okremo stand microorganism obligate, suvori anaerobic. Before them one can see the alarms of the most harmless ailments: gas gangrene, right, botulism. The first two people get sick, if the earth is consumed by the wound. In such types of terms, it is necessary to work splitting. The bacterium botulism develops in meat products and canned beans rich in protein. She sees a deadly toxin - botulinum, which causes respiratory paralysis. Previously, yoga was called a cowboy rotten.

6. Blue-green algae

Blue-green algae (cyanes) - the most ancient (winkles over 3 billion years ago) aquatic or similar soil autotrophic organisms. Clitini may have several walls (composed of polysaccharides, pectin speech and cellulose), often sloughed with a slimy hood. Their prokaryotic cells are similar to bacteria. Photosynthesis takes place on the membranes, which should be located near the cytoplasm, in order to eliminate chlorophyll and other pigments.

In rich species of blue-green algae, vacuoles are filled with nitrogen. Qi vacuoles regulate the buoyancy of the cell, and allow it to expand in the water. As a rule, blue-green algae are propagated by splitting the cells in two, colonial or single parts - by the decay of colonies or threads. For unfriendly minds, super-girls can be established.

The blue-green algae are widely widened in the biosphere, but the main masses of the inhabitants of the freshwater reservoirs, the deacons live by the seas and on land. Others live near the places of brooding with organic speeches, eating mycotrophically. The stinks of the building purify the water, mineralizing the products of decay.

Acts of blue-green algae building up to nitrogen fixation. Blue-green algae grow like symbionts in rich lichens. The Tsyanese are the first to master the offensive veins - volcanic islands, lava flows.

WISNOVOK

We looked at a hundred parts of disease-causing bacteria, like calling out sickness in people. Age of bacteria suffer and creatures, and plants.

In modern medicine, two main ways of exultation have been developed and the advance of such ailments.

The first of them is the proper splitting of that vaccine.

Another way - the great reach of medicine - antibiotics, the first of them appeared under the hour of another light war that immediately after her.

In vysnovka, stating everything that has been said above, one can characterize prokaryotes with the following table:

Table 1

General characteristics of prokaryotes

Characteristic	Prokaryotes
Rosemary Clitin	Average diameter 0.5-5 µm
The form	One-piece or single-piece
genetic material	Kiltseva DNA is found in the cytoplasm and is not protected by anything. There is no true nucleus of chi chromosomes. There is no nucleus.
organelles	Not enough organelle. Zhodna їх there are no shells (underlying membranes)
Clitinny walls	Zhorstkі, mіst'at polysaccharides and amino acids. The main changing component is murein.
Jgutiki	Sorry microtubules for a day. Change the posture of the client
Dihannya	Seen in mesosomes. In blue-green algae - in cytoplasmic membranes.
Photosynthesis	There are no chloroplasts. Available in membranes, so that they cannot be packed in specific packaging.
Nitrogen fixation	Deyakі mayut tsyu zdatnіst

REFERENCES

1. Hilbert S. Biology of development. v.1, 1993.
2. Golichenkov V.A. Biology of development. 1991.
3. Grin N. and in. Biology. v.1, 1993.
4. Ivanova T.V. Biology 2002.
5. Kemp, Pamela Arms, Karen. Introduction to biology, 1998.
6. Mamontov S.G. Biology, 1991.
7. Mednikov B. Biology of the form of equal life, 1994.
8. Mustafin and in. Biology for university students, 1995.
9. Pavlov I.Yu. ta in Biology, 1996.
10. Chebishev N.V., Kuznetsov. Biology for university students. v.1. 2000.

At the borders of this kingdom, roslins see the kingdom of mushrooms and the kingdom of roslins.

Mushrooms can enter into a symbiotic relationship with other organisms, for example, with algae or cyanobacteria, cultivating lichens. The stench can also enter into a symbiosis with the greater roslins, enveloping and penetrating the roots of the roslins with their hyphae and forming structures (root + mushroom), which has taken the name of mycorrhiza. Such a symbiosis with roslins ensures the need for the rest of the phosphates. For example, 80% of terrestrial roslins, including a lot of agricultural roslins, form a symbiosis with the fungus Glornus versiforme, a kind of bag on their roots and a lighter spriynyattya phosphates and mineral living rechovins from the soil.

In the middle of the organisms of this kingdom, they grow like one-celled (microscopic), lower, and rich-cutted (vishchi) mushrooms.

Mushrooms are classified as: Spravzhnі mushrooms, Oomіtse-ti and Lichens.

Among the Spravzhnіh fungi are divided into classes Chytridієvі fungi, Zygomyceti, Ascomyceti (Sumchasti mushrooms), Basidiomyceti and Inadequate mushrooms (Deuteromyceti).

Ascomycetes are the largest group of mushrooms (more than 30,000 species) that grow among themselves in front of rosemary. Zustrichayutsya as one-clitin, and rich-clitin forms. Their bodies are represented by haploid mycelium. Utvoryuyuyut asks (bags) to avenge askospori, which is a characteristic sign of these mushrooms. Among the mushrooms are the largest groups of mushrooms and yeasts (beer, wine, kefir and others). For example, yeast Saccharomices cerevisiae is added to the fermentation of glucose (CgH^Og). One molecule of glucose gives two molecules of ethyl alcohol for an hour of the enzymatic process.

Basidiomycetes are naive mushrooms. The stench is characterized by great dimensions, yakі can attack pіvіt meter. The body is also composed of mycelium (mycelium), ale bagatoclitinous, which forms mushrooms. The protoplast of fungal clitin not only replaces the nucleus, but also mitochondria, ribosomes, the Golgi apparatus and instills glycogen as a reserve of speech. The hyphae are intertwined, cultivating the fruits of the body, which in everyday life are called mushrooms, which are small drops.

Qi mushrooms multiply as a vegetative and stateless, so as a state way. The most common basidiomycetes are capillary fungi, among them are both natural and bran.

Oomyceti - mainly aquatic and soil fungi. Among the mushrooms, you can also see them in the genus Phytophtora, which call for potato ailments, tomatoes and other solanaceous ones.

Mushrooms play a significant role in nature. Zokrema stench є ruinous organisms. Entrance to the storehouse of rich ecological systems, vіdpovіdalnі for ruynuvannya organic material of dewy growth, to that fermentation is produced, destined for cellulose, lіgnіn and other speeches of dewdrops. It is widely used in syrovarnіy industry for the production of rich varieties of popular syrah. It is impossible not to see that Neurospora crassa is to be attributed to the role of the experimental object in the discovery of rich metabolic pathways.

Lichens are folding organisms, created as a result of symbiosis between fungi, green algae, both cyanobacteria, and azotobacter (Fig. 4). Also, lichen is a combination of organisms, that is a fungus + water + Azotobacter, the reason for which is to ensure that fungal hyphye are responsible for water and mineral resources, water content is for photosynthesis, and Azotobacter is for fixing nitrogen in the atmosphere. Lichens are sacks of all botanical and geographical zones. They reproduce by vegetative, stateless and stately way.

The importance of lichens in nature is great. Through the high sensibility to zabrudnyuvachiv middle lichens, vicorous lichens are like indicators of the purity of the atmosphere. At the pіvnochі є head fodder for deer. The vicorist is also used by the chemist's office and by the perfumery.

Mushrooms mayut a long time ago. These excavations are marked in the Silurian and Devonian. The okremi botanists admit that the stench resembles green algae, that they have consumed chlorophyll. The widest look at the fact that the mushrooms resemble the flagella (the simplest).

Excessive lichen remnants are also known in the Devonian, which signifies about 400 million years in the past. It is assumed that the illumination of lichens was the first step in the establishment of symbiotic symbiosis between organisms. This ensured the possibility of their expansion in various ecological niches.

Kingdom Roslini (Plantae abo Vegetabilia). The whole kingdom is represented by organisms, the cells of which are capable of making thin cell walls and yak building before photosynthesis. Roslins of this kingdom are classified into three sub-kingdoms, and themselves: crimson (Phycobionta), right algae (Phycobionta) and cherry blossoms (Embryophyta).

The body of crimson and right algae is not divided into tissues and organs. They are often called lower, or Sharivtsevy Roslins. Navpaki, other growths like other growths, to that they are characterized by the presence of different tissues and dissection of the body on the organs. The numbers of growth are attached to the life of earthly minds.

The kingdom of Bagryanka (Rhodophyta). Rosliniy subkingdom є rich clitinous organisms (Fig. 5). The body of the crimson is represented by slan. There are close to 4000 species of scarlet, among which the most common are porphyry, nemalion, coraline and others. Їх crimson contaminants should be deposited with chlorophyll, carotenoids, red phycoerythrins, blue phycocyanins and other pigments in them. Є bags of great depths of the seas and oceans. They are often called red algae. Especially rich in them is the Chervone Sea.

They multiply like a stateless, so a stately path from a stately and stateless generation.

Mayut gospodarske meaning. Okremi vidi serve as syrovina, for which agar-agar is used. In a number of krains їх vicorist for thinness fodder

Bagryanki є ancient organisms, but the change of їх and phylogenetic links between other species become obsolete.

Reference algae (Phycobionta). The right algae are roslins, the bodies of which are represented by slan. There are close to 30 thousand species of these organisms. Traplyayutsya like one-clitin, so and rich-clitin algae. The stench is more important than the freshwater waters and the seas, and the soil algae grow and wind the algae in the snow and ice. The multiplication of single-cliten algae grows like a path under a rose, rich algae forms multiply like a pathless, and stately path. When Virgil wrote - “nigilvilor algo” (nothing more expensive for algae). In our hour, algae have added other estimates.

Algologists classify algae into sprat vіddіlіv.

Viddil Green algae (Chlorophyta). Tsej vіddіl representations ruhomimi and non-ruhomimi odnoklіtinnym and bahatoklіtinnym organisms, scho can finish the tovstu clitin wall and shape the shape of the threads, tubules (Fig. 6). Deyakі vidi form rukhlivі and neruhomі colonії. There are over 13,000 species of algae, most of which are bags of fresh water. Ale sees sea forms.

One-clitin and rich-clitin green algae are built before photosynthesis, in order to avenge chloroplasts, in which chlorophyll is concentrated and, in spite of the obvious stench, green contamination may be. The stench can also be xanthophil and carotene.

The typical representatives of one-celled green algae are Chlamydomonas (of the genus Chlamidomonas), which linger near the kaluzha and other small fresh waters, and Chlorella from the same genus (Chlorella), like a bag near fresh and salty waters, on the surface of gray earth, on the bark of trees. Chlorella has a photosynthesis activity, being able to capture and vicorate 10-12% of light energy. Revenge low-value proteins, vitamins B, C and K.

The butt of rich-clitinous green algae is a bag of Volvox stakes. Forming a colony, the whole organism is composed of 500-60,000 cells, the skin of which is provided with two flagella, and also avenges, differentiates the nucleus and chloroplast. Tovsta draglista obolonka otochu dermal clitinum and water-cremation її in the form of susidnіkh clitinum. As if the colony has one genie, the others continue to live. The detoxification of cells in the colony ensures the safety of the roaming organism.

Reproduce along the way, or the adoption of roaming zoospores, like water-creaming in the mother's organism, attach themselves to the substrate, and then develop in a new organism. In spirogir, there may be a significant process in the appearance of conjugation.

Gospodarskoe the value of these algae is small, so it’s not important that through the richness of the proteins and vitamins, chlorella vicorist is used as food for creatures. Being a component of phytoplankton, it is food for fish.

It is assumed that green algae vinified as a result of aromorphoses, which were the embodied nuclei, the appearance of richness of the state process. It is also assumed that stinks gave rise to primitive terrestrial dews that became the ancestral forms of moss-like ones.

Viddil Diatoms algae, or diatoms (Chrysophyta) representations are more important than bugatoclytic organisms, which are sometimes called colonial forms (Fig. 7). Traplyayutsya and one-clitin forms. Viewed 5700 views. They are characterized by a clear differentiation of the body into the cytoplasm and the nucleus. The clitin wall is “leaked” with silica, and the result is called a shell. With baggies of fresh waters, seas and oceans, and enter the warehouse of phytoplankton.

In algae clitins there are chloroplasts in grains or laminae that look like grains or laminae, which are spun in different colors through different pigments (carotene, xanthophylls and yogo variant diatomine). Because of this, diatomaceous algae are often referred to as golden brown.

Reproduction in a way rozpodіlu kіtin navpіl. At okremih speciesІsnuє article of reproduction. Diatoms are diploid organisms.

The stratification of dimerlih diatom algae gave an ear of diatom, which is 50-80% formed from their shells and vicarious like pottery in chemistry and food industry.

The significance of diatom algae in nature is already great. The stench takes a vinyatkovo important place in the circle of speeches, being the head food for ribs. Їх Kharchova valueє already high.

Evolutionarily, diatoms stand closer to green algae, but it is not clear how they move.

Viddil Storms of algae (Phaeophyta). Qi algae are rich in organisms. Skin clitina to revenge only one core. Behind the stench of the largest (dovg) algae, reachable for a sprig of dozens of meters (Fig. 8). Seen close to 900 views. Є bags of seas and oceans, including pivnіchni. Their pigmentation is due to the fact that the stench avenges chloroplasts, taints brown colors through chlorophyll, as well as brown pigments (carotene, xanthophyllus and fucoc-santine).

The most abundant algae from the canopies of Laminaria and Fucus.

They reproduce by vegetative, stateless and stately way. Vegetatively reproduces by parts of the slo-evishch, without state (spore) - for the help of haploid spores that develop into gametophyte, state - by way of isogamy, heterogamy or oogashi. It is more characteristic to draw haploid and diploid generations. Articles of cells are provided with flagella.

Gospodarske significance of these algae, especially laminaria, is already great. From them they extract iodine, potassium salts, agar-like speech, which are vicarious in the food industry. Laminaria, under the name " sea ​​cabbage”, vikoristovuyutsya in zhu people. Deyakі algae vikoristovuyut like dobriva.

Storms of algae are the most recent water growths. They admit that the stench gave the ear to the fern-like dews.

Concluding a short review of data on algae, it is worth noting that, in general, algae may be important in rich ecological systems. In fact, the stench is the main source of organic speeches in waterways. It is credited that algae are the best for the wide synthesis of the Light Ocean and organic speech in the amount of 550 billion tons, which will become a significant part of the productivity of the entire biosphere. Dali їm to lie even more significant role enriched with sour atmosphere. Nareshti, algae take their fate from self-purifying water bodies, from soil-forming ones.

Kingdom of Vishchi Roslin (Embryophyta or Embryobionta). Roslini, which enters the warehouse of this kingdom, is often called leaf-stem, the shards of their body are divided into a stem, a leaf and a root. In addition, they are called germinal, to that stench to avenge the germ. Nareshti, they are called sudine roslins (crim moss-like), shards in the organs of their sporophytes, vessels and tracheids.

Vishchi grew in the course of historical development were attached to the life of earthly minds. In these roslins, there is a drawing of a state (gametophyte) and a stateless (sporophyte) generation. The gametophyte produces gametes and protects the embryo, just like the sporophyte produces superworts, thus ensuring the onset of the generation of the gametophyte. In our growing roslins, a diploid sporophyte dominates, which is the old look roslini.

In the kingdom of the Greater growths, there are different spores and other growing growths. For the greater spores, the characteristic subdivision of the article and the non-state reproduction. In the first type, reproduction occurs with unicellular spores, which are established in sporangia of sporophytes, in the other - by gametes, which are established in the state organs of gametophytes. For the present-day roslins, the presence of bugatoclitous estrangement is characteristic - nasіnnya, which is established in the process of reproduction, that nad naєnєvim roslins are the most important evolutionary prevagance before the spore ones.

Vishchi roslini klassifikut on kіlka vіddіlіv. Zocrema, other spores of the growth are classified as Rhyniophyta (Rhyniophyta) and Zosterophylophyta (Zostrophyllophyta), organisms of which are mostly vimerly, as well as on nin and sporophyte moss (Bryophyta), Lycopodiophyta (Polypodiophyta). Vishchі nasіnєvі vіtkovі klаsifіkuyu vіddіl golonasіnі (Gymnospermae) і Pokritonasіnі, аbo Kvіtkovі (Angiospermae, аbo Magnoliophyta). Voices and pocritonasins are the same as all the others - the main spores of the spores. In some of the greater spore-bearing tendrils, the superchids are the same (equally spore growths), and in some superchids, they vary in size (differently spore growths).

From the heights of today's viddles below, they will be looked at only by the eyes.

Viddil Moss-like(Bryophyta). Tsei saw the performances of undersized, bagatorichny roslins. In some of them, the body is represented by slan, while in most of them it is divided into stems and leaves (Fig. 9). There are close to 25,000 moss-like species. Є bags of sirih mіsts in all geographic zones. They stick to the ground for help of hair-like growths, called rhizoids. Through the structures of the stench, the stench is eaten. The most prominent representatives of this type are zozulin lyon, marchantia riznomanitna, mosses of the sphagnum genus (300 species).

The development of mokhivs is characterized by the drawing of a state (gametophyte) and stateless (sporophyte) generation. On the roslins of the state generation, super-flowers of various roses are established. After the infestation of female clitins by humans, sporophyte (sporangium from spores) develops, which may have a diploid set of chromosomes. Arguing that as a result of meiosis in sporangia, a haploid set of chromosomes can be found. Hanging on the ground, superchickens germinate, giving a cob of grass, gametophyte, which can be in clitins, which reproduce by mitosis, a haploid set of chromosomes. The haploid gametophyte dominates the development cycle. On the gametophyte, the cells of the cells are newly established and the process is repeated. specific feature tsikh roslin є not only the dominance of the haploid gametophyte, but also those that the gametophyte (state of the generation) and sporophyte (the state of the generation) є one growth.

The importance of mossy in nature is in those who, perebuvayuchi in ecosystems, stench inject on dovkіllya rich species of other growths, like and creatures. Intensive reproduction of moss sprays the soil. Seemingly, sphagnum mosses “turn off the peat” and make up for the peat. Deyakі see vikoristovuyutsya in the medical industry.

It is important to note that the plants of this group were among the first terrestrial plants and were widely grown 450-500 million years ago, because their evolution was considered to be a regressive development of the sporophyte. Take into account that moss-like is a blind evolutionary gullet.

Viddil Fern-like(Palypodiophyta). At the borders of this river, grassy growths are classified, which also linger near the other places (Fig. 10). Fern-like deyaki, which linger in the tropics, are represented by village forms, around which they reach 25 meters at height. There are over 10,000 species of roslin. Typical representatives of ferns are ferns.

For fern-like ones, it is also more characteristic to draw a stateful and stateless generation, proteo, on a view of mossy-like ones, in organisms that lie up to the first part, more important than sporophyte, which is characterized by diplomacy. The sporophyte has the main organs - stem, leaves, roots. Navpaki, the gametophyte is characterized by even small rosemary, representing a small dressing, attached to the ground for additional rhizoids.

For fern-like characteristic folding cycle development. The cycle begins with the development of the isospores of the gametophyte (overgrowth), on which the organs of the species look like antherid and archegonium. In the rest, the state of clitiny develops. After the sporophyte is established from the zygote, superchickens are established in which the gametophyte is born. Most of the fern-like species are represented by richly spore-bearing roslins.

The significance of ferns in nature is great, so that stench enters the warehouse of rich ecosystems. Gospodarskoe the significance of the present fern-like is small, as it is not important that the growths of the other species serve as medicinal syrovina.

Ferns are classified into 7 species, most of which are represented by the lesser species.

Ferns similar to the oldest spore roslins. The stinks were already in the Devonian, and in the Carboniferous they became foxes and roslins, the height of which was 30 m.

Viddil voices(Gymnospermae). Roslini tsgogo vіddіlu give nasіnnya, yakі є, in fact, the germs of future roslins are ready. The main organs of the plant are the germinal root, germinal stalk, germinal leaves. However, do not open with carpels in golonasinnyh. For reasons of reason, they are called holo-syntheses.

The voices are represented by trees, chagars and lianas. Number of views to become close to 700. Widened in every way earth cool. The pivnіchnіy pіvkulі is occupied by the majestic areas, which make up the coniferous trees.

For holonosins, it is typical to draw generations, which are related to the change of haploid and diploid stages, however, they have a change in the gametophyte. Yalivets, cycad, thuja, yalina, pine, modrina are all sporophytes. Yak and all nasіnєvі roslini, golonasіnі є raznosporovimi. Organs of reproduction are female and human cones, which are formed on the same tree and in which the gametophyte is found.

The illumination of the present day is the first stage in the development of the sporophyte. The female cones were born from great lusochok, called megasporophiles, the skin of which carried two megasporangia on the inner surface, and the skin of the megasporangia in their turn took revenge on the megaspore, as it develops into a rich-clitinous gametophyte, which avenges two or three archegonia. The skin archegonia is composed of a single large egg cell and a small number of small venerable cells. Megasporangium covering is so called integument. Megasporangia with an integument are called sim'lingual.

Human cones bear on the inner surface of their skins (on microsporophiles) two microsporangia each, to avenge microspores, the skin of which develops into haploid files. Pilk granules (grains) form the human gametophyte.

Megasporophiles and microsporophiles are selected in mega- and micro-rostrobilli (virtually) on a shortened spore-bearing pagon, which is a stem with spore-bearing leaves.

If the nail files are used on the female bumps, the veins pass through the ovules, and the skin saw granule develops into a ticin tube and two spermatozoa, and if the tartar tube penetrates into the ovum, the sperm nucleus with the ovule nucleus develops. Price and є zaplіdnennya. The diploid zygote becomes a diploid embryo. In the course of time, the new inte-gument of the small lingual is transformed into the husk of the last, which is how the endosperm is established from the excess of the megasporangium. Otzhe, sim'yazachatok transforms into nasinnya. After the ripening of the new cones, the names drop out.

The voices of a long-standing group of great Russians. Appearing in the Devonian (about 350 million years ago), the hollows, like the Paleozoic - the ear of the Mesozoic, occupied the space of ferns, the shards appeared more attached to life in terrestrial minds. One of their hypotheses is that it is naked to resemble the most ancient fern-like ones.

Viddil Pocritonasinnі, or Kvitkovi(Angiospermae, or Magnoliophyta). Roslini tsygo vіddіlu traplyayutsya mayzhe ubiquitous. 250,000-300,000 species fall on a part, i.e., maybe two-thirds of the species of the kingdom of Roslin. In this hour of stink, a prosperous group of roslins.

At the borders of this vіddіlu, monocotyledonous and aquatic growths are distinguished, as if they were both grassy and chagar-like species, as well as trees. The typical representatives of this species are rye, wheat, troyanda, birch, wasp and others. Distinguish monocotyledonous and two-cottoned pokritonasіnnі dews.

For roslin cichlids, it is also characteristic of a blackened generation, ale stink, there was a significant change in the gametophyte.

The miraculous feature of these roslins is the presence of a flower in them, as a modified flow and a similar sporophyte (Fig. 11). The very same growers who approve the tickets are called flower ones. As a rule, quotes from both articles, but also other and different ones. In kvittsі, the uterus and ticinki are separated, yakі є yogo head parts. At the lower part of the uterus (ovary) develops a nasinnya. For the reasons for this, the growths took away the name of the Pokritos. The lower part of the uterus is represented by a stalk, a narrow stump and a rill. As soon as the tartars are standing, the skin of them is folded from the tardiform thread and the pilion.

In both articles, roslins, like the middle of the pocritonas, become bigger, the flowers grow like queens, so do the chicks, so that the flowers grow like queens (women) and chicks (human) flowers. Ale, among the rich, one sees little flowers, only queens, on the other - only chicks. Such growths are called dioecious. Sawing is the result of transferring the file from the tartars to the rollers of the uterus.

The overhead scheme of the reproduction of pocritons in fig. 12.

The female gametophyte of flower roslins is composed of 8 cells of the germ bear, one of which is an egg cell. This microscopic structure develops from a single megaspore. The human gametophyte develops from microspores, or pilar granules, which are located in the microsporangium of the pilaf. Having eaten a pestle on the roller, the saw granule as a result of splitting gives an ear of generative cells and cells that develop into a saw tube. Dali saw tube grows into the empty vein. The core of the tube of the generative clitina migrates to the bottom of the nail tube, the degenerative clitina divides, giving two sperm. One of the sperm cells becomes angry with the ovum, making a diploid zygote, while the other sperm becomes angry with the nucleus (in the center of the germinal bear, in the ovule), giving a triploid nucleus, which then develops into the endosperm. Zreshtoy offended structures opine in us, and nasinnya opines at the veil, which develops at the plaid. The rest can take revenge in one day to a few days. This kind of filling is called subwinning (Fig. 13). Vono Bulo Vidcrito 1898 r. S. G. Navashinim (1857-1950). Biological sense of underflooding in the fact that the development of triploid endosperm at once from a great number of generations ensures the economy of plastic and energy resources of the trees.

Vono Bulo Vidcrito 1898 r. S. G. Navashinim (1857-1950). Biological sense of underflooding in the fact that the development of triploid endosperm at once from a great number of generations ensures the economy of plastic and energy resources of the trees.

The stem is the organ of roslin, to which the leaves, roots, flowers are attached. (The Budova stem of a woody tree is shown in Fig. 14.)

Leaves are the most important organ of roslin. The stench is characterized different form and prompted by a large number of balls of cells to avenge the great number of chloroplasts. Serve as an organ of gas exchange between the roslins and the middle. Through the presence of chlorophyll in the leaves, photosynthesis occurs, the basis of which is formed by two reactions - photolysis of water and fixation of COg.

Root is an organ of growth, which adsorbs water mineral speeches from the soil and carry it out to the stem. In pocritonal, yak and holonasinous, water and vitality of speech from the soil are adsorbed by root hairs and carried into the xylem as a result of an osmotic pressure in the root system, di capillaries, a negative pressure in the xylem, which in some villages reaches up to 100 bar, transpiration, i.e. viparovuvannya water from the leaves (Fig. 15).

It is even more important for the Lord's opinion to reevaluate the importance of pocritons, because the stench is especially widespread in the life of people (gerel of food, syrovina for trade, food for creatures thin).

Pokritonasіnnі roslini є panіvnimi roslini of our planet. For this reason, an explanation of their journey has long been shown to be one of the most important tasks in the theory of evolution. Starting from Ch. Darwin, an explanation of the cover of critonic growths was hung up a sprinkling of hypotheses. For one of them, they let them in, so that the cloaked ones resemble some of the naked ones, and the monocots resemble some of the old watery ones. However, these other hypotheses are not complete. Іsnuyut razbіzhnosti y at the appointed hour the appearance of pokritonic. Behind the latest developments, the diversification of flower roslins, including podіl on monocotyledonous and dicotyledons, was 130-90 million years old, and it gave the same cob to the change of terrestrial ecosystems.

Catering for discussion

1. How do you understand the difference between pre-nuclear and nuclear organisms?

2. Name the sub-kingdoms of pre-nuclear organisms.

3. What do you know about archeobacteria and their dominance, which do not exist in other pre-nuclear organisms?

4. What is the role of bacteria in nature and in human life? What morphological forms of bacteria do you know?

5. List the main powers of mushrooms. What do fungi look like lichens?

6. What are the similarities and vіdmіnnosti between the clitins of the grown-ups and the clitins of the creatures?

7. What makes green algae look like cyanobacteria?

8. What are the signs of algae, what is the meaning of the state?

9. What are the powers of the taman forests?

10. What does it mean for Russians to draw a generation that is a biological role?

11. What is the difference between moss-like and fern-like roslins? What is the sleepiness of your future?

13. Why do the Pokritos think of such a name?

14. How important is the ticket?

16. Why do Pokritonian people have underwear?

16. What is the meaning of the life of a human being?

17. What do you know about the march of the Pokritonian Roslins?

Literature

Green N., Stout W. Taylor D. Biology. M: Peace. 1996. 368 pages.

Nidon K., Peterman I., Sheffel P., Washer B. Roslin and creatures. M: Peace. 1991. 260 pages.

Starostin B. A. Botanika. At the book. "History of Biology". M: Science. 1975. 52-77.

Yakovlev G. P., Chelombitko V. A. Botanika. M: Great school. 1990. 367 pages.

Rosemweig, M. L. Species Diversity in Space and Time. Cambridge University Press. 1995. 436pp.